Preface: From the Institutional Framework to the Theological Framework
Praise be to Allah. The first article of this series presented the legal and institutional framework in which Islamic religious education arose in Germany, and it became clear that its inclusion in state schools took place within a modern constitutional structure that relies on transitional models, advisory boards and university centres.
The second article offered a documented academic presentation of the article by the researcher Fahimah Ulfat (2025), where it appeared clearly that Islamic religious education in the German context is built on concepts such as:
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Self-formation (Selbstbildung)
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Religious independence (religious self-determination)
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The competence model (Kompetenzorientierung)
Religious education, however, cannot be understood in isolation from the theological framework that nourishes it. In the Arabic media coverage of the German experience, the name of:
Mouhanad Khorchide
stood out as one of the most prominent academic figures associated with the development of a contemporary “Islamic theology” in Germany, especially through his position at:
University of Münster
From here this article poses an analytical question:
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What theological structure stands behind some of these educational conceptions?
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And does the “theology of mercy” project reflect a shift in the concept of Islamic religious authority in the European context?
The intention here is to analyse the project as an intellectual structure, not to discuss a particular person.
First: An Objective Presentation of the “Theology of Mercy” Project
1. The Centrality of Mercy
The “theology of mercy” project, as it appears in his book Islam ist Barmherzigkeit (Islam Is Mercy), and in his later works on the Shari’ah such as Scharia – der missverstandene Gott, rests on regarding mercy as the supreme hermeneutical value in understanding Islam. Allah – in this conception – is presented primarily as a merciful, loving God, and the original relationship between Him and the human being is founded on mercy, not on fear.
This trend criticises what is called the “theology of obedience and fear”, that is, conceptions that make the relationship with Allah rest on bare compliance with commands and prohibitions without bringing out the emotional and value dimension.
Within this framework, mercy becomes not merely one divine attribute within the system of attributes, but the central key to understanding the texts.
2. The Historical Reading of the Text
The project also rests on a historical-contextual reading of the Qur’an and the Sunnah, based on distinguishing between:
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general, universal objectives (such as dignity, freedom and justice),
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and historical applications tied to the context of the seventh century CE / first century AH.
Many legislative rulings are understood as historical applications of those objectives, not as formulations binding in themselves outside their context.
3. Distinguishing Between the Messenger and the Ruler
Among the notable elements of the project is the distinction between what proceeds from the Prophet ﷺ in his capacity as conveyor and expounder of revelation, and what proceeds from him in his capacity as imam and political leader in a specific historical context, with the second kind regarded as tied to a temporal administrative function open to ijtihad and to change as contexts change.
This distinction results in re-reading some Prophetic actions within the framework of “temporal politics” rather than within the framework of legislation binding in itself.
4. Redefining the Shari’ah
In a number of his writings on the Shari’ah, the concept of the Shari’ah is presented as a framework of values aimed at realising mercy, justice and dignity, more than as a fixed, detailed system of rulings, which opens the door to rearranging the relationship between the text, the objective and history.
With this presentation it becomes clear that the project is not confined to modifying certain rulings, but rearranges the relationship between the text, the objective and history.
It is important to stress that the “theology of mercy” project does not represent the only trend within the centres of Islamic theology in Germany; there are other centres with orientations closer to textual or traditional conservatism, and the German states themselves adopt different models of religious education. The choice of this project for analysis here is due to its clear presence in German media and academic discourse, and to its noticeable influence in some circles of debate on the nature of contemporary Islamic theology in Europe.
It should be noted that this project has not passed without controversy in the German or international context; it faced strong opposition from Islamic federations within Germany, and critical statements and fatwas were issued by scholarly bodies in Europe, Turkey and the Arab world that regarded some of its theses as a departure from the traditional creedal conception. The subject of analysis here, however, is the intellectual structure of the project itself, not the juristic or political controversy surrounding it.
Second: The Philosophical-Theological Analysis
1. The Concept of God Between Attribute and Criterion
In the classical Islamic tradition, mercy is a great attribute among the attributes of Allah, but it is joined with other attributes such as justice, wisdom, might and majesty.
In the theology of mercy, however, mercy stands out as the governing value in whose light the texts are reinterpreted.
Here a philosophical question arises:
- Does mercy turn from a divine attribute into a supra-textual hermeneutical criterion against which the meanings of the text are measured?
The difference is subtle but essential; for turning a particular value into a higher criterion may lead to the reinterpretation of texts that do not outwardly accord with that criterion.
2. The Concept of Freedom and the Self
The project is also linked to strengthening the concept of religious freedom as self-autonomy. Faith – in this framework – should be a free, conscious choice, not the result of traditional or social pressures.
But this raises a theological question:
- What is the relationship between freedom and servitude (‘ubudiyyah) in the Islamic conception?
In the tradition, servitude to Allah is understood as liberation from everything besides Him, whereas modern discourse highlights the concept of autonomy (Autonomie) as the central value.
Are we facing a difference in the ordering of concepts, or a reformulation of them?
3. Revelation and History
The project relies on a historical method in understanding the texts, but the limits of this historicity need to be defined.
Is history:
- the circumstance in which the text was revealed, while its meaning remains extended?
or
- an essential determinant of its meaning, such that only its general objective is carried over?
This question is not political but epistemic, because it concerns the nature of the text itself.
Third: The Usuli-Methodological Analysis
Here the discussion moves onto the ground of the science of the principles of jurisprudence (usul al-fiqh).
1. The Text and the Objective
In usul al-fiqh, the objectives (maqasid) are extracted from the texts and are not imposed on them from outside. Moreover, the objectives themselves are not a single value, but an integrated system.
If “mercy” becomes the sole key, is the system of objectives reduced to a single value?
And is this value then presented as a criterion prior to the text, or as one derived from it?
2. The Definitive and the Speculative
Expanding the historicity of rulings raises a problem in the area of the definitive (qat’i) and the speculative (zanni).
If most civil rulings are regarded as temporal applications, does a wide field remain for what is definitive in meaning in legislation?
And does this lead to shrinking the area of obligation in favour of the area of general value-based discretion?
3. The Authority of the Sunnah
If the Prophet as Messenger is separated from the Prophet as ruler, then some of the Sunnah of action and tacit approval may be understood as political rather than legislative acts.
But in the traditional usuli structure, the acts of the Prophet ﷺ – even in the context of leadership – are a source from which rulings are derived according to well-known controls.
Does this broad distinction then lead to redefining the authority of the Sunnah itself?
Fourth: The Connection with Religious Education
On returning to the concepts of the second article, as they appear in the works of Fahimah Ulfat and Behr on the concept of fitrah, self-formation and the competence model in Islamic religious education in Germany, a clear intersection appears between:
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self-formation (Selbstbildung),
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religious independence,
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the competence model,
and:
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the centrality of freedom,
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the reduction of the obligatory dimension,
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the redefinition of the Shari’ah as a system of values.
Here a comprehensive analytical question arises:
- Are we facing a shift from a juristic-textual authority to a theological-pedagogical authority?
That is:
has the definition of Islam within the educational context come to be formulated primarily through modern educational concepts, with the text then reinterpreted in their light?
Fifth: Towards Understanding the Shift in the Concept of Religious Authority
If we look at the overall picture, we find that there is a possible shift:
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from the authority of the madhhab to the authority of the university,
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from usul al-fiqh to modern hermeneutics,
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from the centrality of the text to the centrality of academic interpretation.
This does not necessarily mean a complete break with the tradition, but it reflects a rearrangement of the elements that make up religious authority.
And the question remains open:
- Is it possible to produce a model that combines inherited usuli discipline with conscious engagement in the European context, without a radical reformulation of the concept of religious authority itself?
It is this question that will determine the future of Islamic religious education in Europe, and whether it will remain an extension of a continuous juristic tradition, or turn into a new contextual theology.
And Allah is the Granter of success.
Conclusion of the Series: Between Discipline and Context
This series – from the media news item to the theological analysis – reveals that Islamic religious education in Germany is not merely a matter of including a school subject, but a point of intersection between three worlds:
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the constitutional framework of the modern state,
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the academic university field,
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and the inherited juristic and theological tradition.
It has become apparent that the debate does not revolve only around the “existence” of religious education, but around who holds the right to define it, with what methodological tools it is rebuilt, and what authority governs its relationship with the text and with history.
The “theology of mercy” project – as one of the influential trends in the German landscape – reflects an attempt to rearrange the relationship between the text and the objective, between obligation and freedom, and between the Shari’ah and values. Yet this trend is not the only voice in the field, nor is it a matter of consensus; rather, it represents one of the paths in the search for a formula for an Islamic theology living in a pluralistic European context.
And the greater question remains, one that goes beyond the German experience itself:
How can Muslims in a minority context preserve their inherited usuli discipline, and at the same time engage consciously with the modern legal and cultural framework, without adaptation turning into a radical redefinition of religious authority?
The answer to this question does not concern Germany alone; it touches the future of Islamic discourse in Europe and the world, and it touches also the nature of the relationship between text and interpretation in an age in which the boundaries between theology, education and politics overlap.
This is what makes the question of religious education – outwardly – a school matter, but in its depth a matter of authority and identity.
And Allah knows best. May Allah send blessings and peace upon our Prophet Muhammad, his family and his Companions, and praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds.